Roots of Muslim Maritime Trade

The history of transregional trade in the Indian Ocean is reflective of a vibrant trade from around the 1st century AD . With the expansion of Islam into India, East Africa and Southeast Asia the Indian Ocean began to cohere as a unified global economy and subsequently bound up in law. The resilience of the Islamic world in facing the brunt of European imperial expansion is evident since 16th century . The navy of the Fatimid Caliphate was one of the most advanced Muslim navies and a significant force in the central and eastern Mediterranean in the 10th to 12th centuries. The Holy Quran contains passages regarding maritime trade .The expansion of the Muslim caliphate enabled development  of communication and transport systems and complementary naval fleets . Muslim naval power was impressive during the rule of the Ottoman Empire dominating the Mediterranean, Red Sea and parts of the Indian Ocean.

Advent of Islam

After the advent of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century Muslim influence expanded towards eastern regions through trade facilitated by the development of the maritime Silk Roads. Muslims were reputed to possess exceptional commercial and sailing skills. After the birth of Islam merchants travelled extensively to the East and some settled in China and also the Korean peninsula. Such resettlement allowed Muslims to monopolize the East-West trade of the maritime Silk Roads which connected various major ports of eastern Asian regions . At times commercial ships flying various flags berthed for provisions at various ports or waited for changes in wind direction.

Muslim Maritime Commerce

At times it is difficult to trace Muslim identity in commerce. Muslims’ governance at times refers to shores and waters under Islamic authority. Nūr al-Dīn al-Sālimī in his Jawhar al-niẓām cites different views on the ḥarīm of the sea akin to the well or the river starting from the highest point of the tide, toward the land , 500 cubits to allow for free access. Muslim merchants traditionally dealt in a wide variety of trade goods including sugar, salt, textiles, spices, slaves, gold and horses. Arabs traversed the ocean even before the advent of Islam in Mecca and continued their travels to the littoral and coastal regions of the Indian Ocean for trade as well as religious propagation. The historical accounts testify that within less than a century after the advancement of Islam in Arabia the Muslims dominated more than half of the maritime world. The merchants and sailors developed new maps and constructed new types of dhows for sailing. The eastern, western and southern parts of the Mediterranean were entirely under the sway of Islam while some parts of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean were also under Muslim control at times. Non-Muslims started converting to Islam and Muslim presence was significant in the Indian Ocean world. The 14th century Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta has been termed as the “tin opener” of the Indian Ocean world owing to his multi- faceted role in the hinterlands of the Indian Ocean.

Sensationalising Strait of Hormuz

The Strait of Hormuz is an international water crossing located between the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman and is about 50 kilometers wide at the narrowest point between Oman and Iran. Large ships are confined to a narrower shipping lane in the shallow waters however international law does not allow blockage of any strait as according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) the Strait of Hormuz is an international strait providing the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the ocean. Skirmishes continue despite the Iranian government having signed UNCLOS which its parliament has not ratified . All member states of the European Union have signed the convention . Shipping through the Strait of Hormuz is regulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Large oil tankers necessarily have to traverse Oman’s and Iran’s territorial waters to enter the Persian Gulf with it being incumbent on both these countries to provide the required measures to facilitate the passage of cargo ships including providing navigation services and installing guide signs for which they are compensated through levies and taxes. Even during wartime countries around the strait don’t have the right to block transit although they can inspect cargo ships.

OIC and EEZ

Out of the 57 member countries of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) the majority have Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) due to their coastal characteristics. A few member countries are landlocked without any direct access to the sea. The OIC countries which are landlocked are 11 whereas those countries with EEZ number 46. The extent and size of EEZs can vary for each country depending on their coastal boundaries and agreements with neighboring countries.

Most member countries of the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) are maritime states bordering the Atlantic coast  of North-West Africa, Southern and Eastern coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, North Arabian Sea including the Gulf and parts of South East Asia seas. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982, the marine jurisdiction of these nations have been extended to about 10 million sqkm Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) over which these countries have sovereign rights  on its resources. Most of these oceanic areas represent extensively productive regions of the worlds oceans with rich fisheries and minerals and oil and gas resources. The Inter-Islamic Network on Oceanography is expected to provide a forum and mechanism so as to translate the “Science” into tangible benefits and products for national and regional development.

Among OIC member states the following countries are considered maritime countries and have sea shores:

1. Algeria
2. Yemen
3. Saudi Arabia
4. Comoros
5. Djibouti
6. Egypt
7. Indonesia
8. Iran
9. Iraq
10. Jordan
11. Kuwait
12. Lebanon
13. Libya
14. Malaysia
15. Maldives
16. Morocco
17. Oman
18. Pakistan
19. Palestine
20. Qatar
21. Somalia
22. Sudan
23. Tunisia
24. Turkey
25. United Arab Emirates

The following OIC countries are landlocked :

1. Afghanistan
2. Burkina Faso
3. Chad
4. Kazakhstan
5. Kyrgyzstan
6. Mali
7. Niger
8. Burkina Faso
9. Tajikistan
10. Turkmenistan
11. Uganda
12. Uzbekistan

Muslim Bloc within IMO

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation countries that are members of the International Maritime Organization number 29 namely:

1. Algeria
2. Bangladesh
3. Comoros
4. Djibouti
5. Egypt
6. Guinea
7. Indonesia
8. Iran
9. Iraq
10. Jordan
11. Kuwait
12. Lebanon
13. Libya
14. Malaysia
15. Maldives
16. Morocco
17. Nigeria
18. Oman
19. Pakistan
20. Qatar
21. Saudi Arabia
22. Senegal
23. Somalia
24. Sudan
25. Syria
26. Tunisia
27. Turkey
28. United Arab Emirates
29. Yemen

Blocs within Blocs – Inland Waterways

While the OIC  countries generally have significant coastline and access to maritime shipping routes not all of them have extensive inland waterway systems. Seven OIC countries have the potential to develop inland waterways to serve the dual purpose of reducing environmental degradation and reducing carbon print and lowering freight and logistic costs and transportation complications . A cautious approach is recommended towards the development and utilization of inland waterways as considerable variation is likely across these countries depending on factors such as infrastructure, national policies and economic considerations. These 7 countries are ;

1. Bangladesh with an extensive network of rivers including the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers suitable for and partly utilised for inland waterway routes in transportation and trade and connected to coastal routes .

2.  Egypt’s Nile River is used as inland waterway for transportation and trade within the country.

3.Guinea’s Niger River flows through part of the country .

4. Indonesia has numerous rivers and lakes, such as the Mahakam River and Lake Toba, that could be utilized as inland waterways for transportation.

5. Nigeria boasts the Niger River .

6. Pakistan’s Indus River endowed with natural bends and flows from North to South can be utilised by relatively less investment as a major inland waterway and artery for transportation and trade.

7. Senegal has the Senegal River serving as part of the border between Senegal and Mauritania.

Emergence of a Muslim Maritime Bloc

The OIC  member countries can unlock the potential of their respective maritime sectors including EEZ . The need of the hour is to encourage maritime collaboration amongst OIC maritime member countries as there are no joint ventures in seabed mining , offshore drilling and fishing .Women are not visible on the maritime horizon . The countries can operate as a bloc on the pattern of IMO as there is a Arab bloc, EU bloc , Latin American bloc , African bloc and a Small Islands bloc. The Muslim world has considerable voting strength at the IMO , a landlocked Muslim bloc, a Muslim inland waterways bloc and a distinct maritime Muslim bloc . All these blocs can be mustered as a unified Muslim maritime bloc under the umbrella of the OIC and such a grouping would promote advancement in the areas of technology , food security, energy security, marine sciences , international law , academics, shipping lines and fleets , logistics and trade , commerce , tourism , inland waterways , green fuels , ship construction , hydrography, ocean conservation , fishing , coastal development and lead to employment opportunities within the Muslim world.

 

Authored by Nadir Mumtaz

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